Psych. TABLE 8. The influence of cognitive flexibility on treatment outcome and cognitive restructuring skill acquisition during cognitive behavioural treatment for anxiety and depression in older adults: Results of a pilot study. Hofmann, W., Schmeichel, B. J., and Baddeley, A. D. (2012). doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.07.015, Snyder, H. R. (2013). Res. In addition, since the hypothesized two factors underlying the CCFQ are confounded by valence of item wording (the appraisal and coping flexibility factor has only positively worded items and the cognitive control over emotion consists mainly of negatively worded items), we included a method factor in the model to account for variance related to the valence of the items. In the formula below, Cort represents the absolute cortisol value in μg/dl and T refers to the length of time between cortisol sample collections. Exp. Ther. Affect. It is important to mention that the CCFQ measures qualitatively distinct features to that of the SAM and SCOPE. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.02.048. The Ruminative Response Scale (RRS; Treynor et al., 2003) is a widely used 22-item questionnaire assessing ruminative response styles to sad or depressed mood. Psychol. All items are rated on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly Agree). A., Wager, T. D., Weber, J., and Ochsner, K. N. (2015). 108:624. doi: 10.1037//0033-295X.108.3.624, Cañas, J., Quesada, J., Antolí, A., and Fajardo, I. We propose that cognitive control and flexibility can be manifested through several core processes, which span attention, appraisals/reappraisals, and the endorsement of certain coping strategies. Specifically, the CCFQ explicitly and directly focused on the (negative) cognitive and emotional states elicited by a stressful situation, and the cognitive control processes required to regulate these responses. A parallel review was undertaken to investigate how control/flexibility might be manifested in stressful situations, which included literature pertaining to attention (set-shifting) and cognitive control as well as stressor appraisals and coping processes. Rev. Cognitive Flexibility Inventory: Factor structure, invariance, reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity among Italian university students. Exp. In the analyses concerning stressor appraisals, all 6 appraisal dimensions were entered simultaneously as proposed mediators, and for analyses involving coping, all 3 forms of coping were considered together. Self-reported ethnic background included Caucasian (72.6%, n = 218), Black (6.0%, n = 18), Asian (4.7%, n = 14), Arab (4.0%, n = 12), South Asian (4.0%, n = 12), Hispanic (2.3%, n = 7), Aboriginal (1.7%, n = 5), South East Asian, 1.0% (n = 3), and other (e.g., mixed ethnicity, 3.7%, n = 11). Stress and Emotion: A New Synthesis. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004, Benedek, M., Franz, F., Heene, M., and Neubauer, A. C. (2012). An excellent model fit would be reflected by a statistically non-significant χ2, a CFI close to 1, and RMSEA of.05 or less (see Kline, 2016). An inventory for measuring. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00108-7, Ridderinkhof, K. R., Van Den Wildenberg, W. P., Segalowitz, S. J., and Carter, C. S. (2004). 9:2219. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02219. Participants comprised (n = 47) female undergraduate students, ranging in age from 18 to 26 years (Mage = 19.00, SDage = 1.56). Rev. Moreover, although the present research focused on depressive symptoms, the CCFQ might also be useful in relation to other psychiatric disorders that have been associated with impaired cognitive control and flexibility, including anxiety (e.g., obsessive–compulsive disorder), substance use, bipolar, and eating disorders (Cunha et al., 2010; Gruner and Pittenger, 2017; O’Donnell et al., 2017; Park and Moghaddam, 2017; Perpiñá et al., 2017). It is used to assess that kind of cognitive flexibility which is es-sential for the individuals to successfully challenge and … Modification indices suggested that including four correlations between the residual/error variances of several items would improve model fit. (2015). However, such paradigms might provide a narrow perspective of how cognitive control and flexibility might be displayed in stressful experiences, and how reductions of these abilities are manifested in behavioral disturbances. (2007). Meta-analysis of Go/No-go tasks demonstrating that fMRI activation associated with response inhibition is task-dependent. As shown in Table 6, individuals who reported greater levels of cognitive control and flexibility on the CCFQ tended to appraise a personally meaningful academic challenge more positively. Accordingly, the CCFQ was specifically designed to assess an individual’s perceived ability to exert control over intrusive, unwanted (negative) thoughts and emotions, and their ability to flexibly adapt to stressful situations. Cognitive change and symptom change in cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy for depression. Addict. questionnaire, please contact the Washington Group secretariat. The strength of the correlations, however, differed for each component of the CCFQ. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_01029, Gotlib, I. H., and Joormann, J. Disord. Prior to these analyses, an Exploratory Structural Equation Model (ESEM) was used to confirm the two-factor structure of the CCFQ and to test alternative models. This was particularly evident among individuals who scored high on the cognitive control over emotion subscale of the CCFQ. Thus, cognitive flexibility as assessed by the CCFQ might not contribute to differences in overall perceived stressfulness concerning an acute challenge. These additional validation measures were also used to investigate distinct and overlapping features of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory and the CCFQ. The fundamental factor in the expression of these abilities is highly dependent on context, including the characteristics and demands of the situation. Although not exhaustive, these examples demonstrate that the terms ‘cognitive control’ and ‘cognitive flexibility’ have clearly been applied to many different behaviors. Following the 30-min habituation period involved in completing these measures, participants provided a baseline saliva sample (for cortisol determination) and were randomly assigned to either the stressor or control condition. Once consent had been granted, participants completed the shortened (18-item) CCFQ in addition to several related questionnaires. J. Neurosci. The article presents the development of the Psychological Flexibility Questionnaire (PFQ) on the basis of two studies. (1999). Cognitive flexibility: a trait of bipolar disorder that worsens with length of illness. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1206608109, Goldfarb, E. V., Froböse, M. I., Cools, R., and Phelps, E. A. Neurosci. Aging Neurosci. Acad. Standardized predictor, mediator, and outcome variables were used in Model 4 of PROCESS, with 95% Confidence Intervals (C.I.) Behav. Child. Soc. Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: a meta-analysis and review. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X00002429, Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., and Munck, A. U. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 20 for Windows (SPSS Science, Chicago, IL, United States). Cognitive flexibility and adaptability to environmental changes in dynamic complex problem-solving tasks. Acad. Using Model 1 (to assess interactions), stressor condition was entered as the predictor variable, unstandardized CCFQ scores were entered as the moderating variable, and unstandardized appraisal, mood, and cortisol responses were entered as the outcome variables. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.07.003, Díaz-Blancat, G., García-Prieto, J., Maestú, F., and Barceló, F. (2018). (2010). Partial correlations between the CCFQ and depressive symptoms after controlling for validation measures of cognitive control and cognitive (in)flexibility. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2013.05.004, Malooly, A. M., Genet, J. J., and Siemer, M. (2013). doi: 10.1002/jnr.23904, Morton, J. defined as the ability to switch one’s thinking (cognition) (or train of thought) as an adaptation to the demands of stimuli Res. This said, it is important to acknowledge the high correlation between the Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire and the cognitive control over emotions component of the CCFQ, which suggests a high degree of overlap between the two measures and potential redundancy. (2018). 3.2.3. doi: 10.3758/s13415-012-0126-6, Cunha, P. J., Nicastri, S., de Andrade, A. G., and Bolla, K. I. 19, 468–478. 152, 19–27. Moreover, when not controlling for the appraisal and coping flexibility, the Stressor Condition × Cognitive Control over Emotion interaction was slightly weaker, ΔR2 = 0.06, F(1,36) = 2.56, p = 0.12. Saliva samples were frozen at -80°C until assayed for cortisol levels. Accordingly, it follows that when confronted with an acute stressor, individuals with lower levels of cognitive control/flexibility would appraise the challenge as more stressful and display more negative affect following the experience. Participants in the community sample comprised 302 (n = 253 females, 49 males) individuals living in Canada with a mean age of 32.83 (SD = 10.36 years). The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ; Gross and John, 2003) is a 10-item questionnaire assessing individual differences in the habitual use of two emotion regulation strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. Brain Imaging Behav. Pearson correlation coefficients were used to examine the relationship between CCFQ subscale scores, stressor appraisals, coping and depressive symptoms. The dual pathway to creativity model: creative ideation as a function of flexibility and persistence. If it changes it must be a process: study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. A parallel analysis (Zwick and Velicer, 1986), in which the actual eigenvalues were compared to average eigenvalues derived from a series of randomly generated data sets (in this case 5000 samples), further supported the presence of two factors. Neurosci. The coping flexibility questionnaire: development and initial validation in patients with chronic rheumatic diseases. Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Thus, in the context of a stressful situation, cognitive flexibility might be observed through the ability to generate multiple coping strategies, and to flexibly adjust them according to changing stressor demands. Précis of “The Brain and Emotion”. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Zaehringer, J., Falquez, R., Schubert, A. L., Nees, F., and Barnow, S. (2018). 233, 45–67. Bull. Cognitive flexibility and decision-making in eating disorders and obesity. Multiple mediations analyses examining the direct and indirect effects of CCFQ subscale scores on depressive symptoms through stressor appraisals and coping style. The present findings suggest that cognitive flexibility totally mediates the association between ELS and habitual behaviors. doi: 10.1080/10463281003765323, Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., and Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). The developers of this inventory conceptualized cognitive flexibility as being able to challenge and replace maladaptive thoughts with more balanced and adaptive thinking. Convergent validity was confirmed by the findings of a positive correlation between the … (2016). In ESEM, the assumption of zero-cross loadings is relaxed. Stress 6, 223–234. 56, 129–140. Rumination and impaired cortisol recovery following a social stressor in adolescent depression. To further identify common and distinct feathers between the two scales, partial correlations between the CCFQ and validation measures, controlling for both subscales of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory, were examined. Accordingly, we propose that cognitive control and flexibility can, in fact, be expressed multiple ways. Folkman, S. (2013). Koster, E. H., De Lissnyder, E., Derakshan, N., and De Raedt, R. (2011). Stress Health 6, 227–236. In line with the data presented in Table 2, the CCFQ was no longer linked to reflective coping and expressive suppression (Table 3). This model provided a poor fit to the data, χ2 (126) = 456.990, p < 0.0001, CFI = 0.875, and RMSEA = 0.084. Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control. Cortisol reactivity and emotional memory after psychosocial stress in oral contraceptive users. The item pool included 33 items involving perceived engagement with fast and slow thinking, and 22 items involving perceived ability and willingness to use the 2 reasoning styles. This ability has predominantly been assessed by the WCST, the Intra-dimensional/Extra-dimensional (ID/ED) shift task, and the Task Switching paradigm (Grant and Berg, 1948; Downes et al., 1989; Monsell, 2003). For instance, beyond repetitive negative thinking, disturbances of cognitive control can also be expressed by difficulties preventing negative emotional information from entering working memory and an inability to disengage such emotional material once it has been attended to (Gotlib and Joormann, 2010). Each statement was rated from 1 (seldom or never) to 4 (almost always), and higher scores indicated greater coping flexibility. Stressor appraisals are followed by the selection of coping methods to contend with the stressor directly and/or regulate emotional responses (Folkman, 2013). Netw. (2011). Kline, R. B. Neurosci. The CCFQ was modeled after conventional behavioral measures of cognitive control and cognitive flexibility and assesses an individual’s perceived ability to exhibit control over their thoughts and behavior in a stressful situation. 39, 979–987. Dennis & Vander Wal Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) (2010). Generally, cognitive control refers to the ability to focus on information that is currently relevant to a particular goal, while inhibiting information that is not relevant (Morton et al., 2011). Of course, you may act differently depending on the situation, but try to think of what you usually think/feel/do when you are stressed or upset. We also examined whether a more complex three-factor model (that also includes a method factor for the negatively worded items) provides a better fit to the data relative to the hypothesized two-factor model (that also includes the method factor for the negatively worded items). To evaluate construct validity, a comparison was made between the final (18-item) version of the CCFQ and the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (Dennis and Vander Wal, 2010). 6, 285–312. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.12.003, Ferguson, M. A., Anderson, J. S., and Spreng, R. N. (2017). 34, 241–253. 1, 192–207. 18, 176–186. Eat. the cognitive flexibility inventory (CFI) is based on a seven-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”). Stressful events play an important role in the emergence and maintenance of depressive disorders (Hammen, 2005). In contrast, individuals with perceived low cognitive control over emotion are more likely to engage in repetitive negative thinking and the excessive processing of negative emotions. (2009). T1 = 20 min; T2 = 10 min; T3 = 15 min. 95, 126–135. In the context of stressful experiences, the reported studies examined processes related to cognitive control and flexibility, emotional regulation and depressive symptoms. 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